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The distance makes no claim that one language is meaningfully less trustworthy, simply that there are different kinds of things, and types of questions to ask about them, and no single set of answers will be sufficient to capture all of them, on all questions. Theories of explanation, and in particular explanatory reduction, have been central to the philosophy of science since the early 20th century, but they have provided no clear guidance regarding the choice between different conceptualizations of key notions such as 'explanation,' 'theory,''reduction,' and 'exploration,' and we discuss reduction and similar concepts in detail to show that they are neither obvious nor uncontroversial. We argue that there is a difference between explanation and reduction in that theory reduction is a two-stage process whereas explanation presumably does not involve reduction. This shows that in addition to the existence of different kinds of explanation there may be different kinds of scientific explanation. To enable a clear operationalization of the notion of different kinds of scientific explanation, we provide a typology of reduction operators and a set of four normative conditions on different kinds of scientific explanation. We conclude that certain standard accounts of explanation and reduction cannot accommodate the differences between them that we have identified, thus raising a challenge for these accounts. This paper discusses hierarchy in the context of physics in order to draw connections to other hierarchies of explanation in natural science, particularly those owing to A. N. Whitehead and B. C. van Fraassen. I also argue that hierarchy implies a pluralism of explanatory judgments, which reflects scientific practice. I then discuss how scientists may categorize science, and I characterize two common forms of polythetic scientific classification. Finally, I argue for a new scientific classification of science that accommodates hierarchy, and I address several objections to that argument.... interpretation, not composition, is the key challenge to the new kind of science. Linguistics is the study of language, a topic for which one particular problem is the question of how language extends in the mind of a person. If we are to ask questions about the mind about whether humans have minds, about man-eating plants, or angels then linguistics is an essential part of any scientific, and certainly any philosophical enquiry. Such an enquiry involves studying the languages that we share with others. d2c66b5586

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